Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

Introduction:

In the seventeenth century and earlier, medical practitioners were known as "Chirurgeons". The chirurgeon was : "One whose profession it is to cure bodily diseases and injuries by manual operation; a surgeon."(The Oxford English Dictionary) An apothecary was : "A person who professes the practice of pharmacy, or that part of physic which consists in the preparation and composition of medicines… In the time of James I. the company of apothecaries were incorporated by charter; till that time they only made a part of the grocers company; plums, sugar, spice … &c. were sold in the same shop; and by the same person. The reason of separating them was, that medicines might be better prepared, and in opposition to divers persons who imposed unwholesome remedies on the people … "(Chambers, E., Cyclopaedia: or, an Universal Dictionary of Arts and London, 1786) "From about 1700 apothecaries gradually took a place as general practitioners."(The Oxford English Dictionary) Thus, the apothecary's profession broadened so that the practice of medicine, the duties of the chirurgeon, and the apothecary were embraced in one profession.

It was, indeed, a curious custom—that of an apothecary practising surgery as well as medicine — but such was the case at this period. Barbers were often considered surgeons and held the title of "Barber-Surgeons". Signs such as, "BARBER rnd CHIRURGEON", were seen frequently. It is thought that "the red stripe on the barber's pole represented the blood he spilt and the white the bandage, while the pole itself the patient held as the operation proceeded. These were all surgical symbols, but may not have been entirely inappropriate …"(Everyday Things in American Life 1607-1776, by William Chauncy Langdon, New York 1937, page 326)

In 1657/8 the Assembly of Virginia passed an "ACT FOR the regulateing of the imoderate excessive rates and prices exacted by practioners of phisick and 2 and chirurgery." They were required on oath to give the value of their drugs and medicines administered to or for the use of patients. (Hening's Statutes I, p. 450) By the eighteenth century the term, "chirurgeon", had been superseded in many sections by "surgeons", "apothecary" or "doctor of physic". Rarely did one find the word "chirurgeon" in use.¹ A few examples in the Virginia records follow:

1694 Inventory of Henry Lee's Estate
"a pair of small scales a small box & weights and a chirurgeon's box"(York County Records, copied in William and Mary Quarterly, XXIV, p. 48)

1673/4 [Deed Henry Whiting to John Armistead - Middlesex County, Virginia, fol. 40] "… Henry Whiting of the Parish of Ware and County of Gloucester aforesd Chirurgeon …"Colonial Records of Gloucester County Virginia by Polly Mason, II, p. 1:25)

1720 Dr. Mark Attkins, Lancaster County, Virginia
"chirurgeon of Christ Church Parish."(William and Mary Quarterly, XVIII, p. 247)

1755 Will of George Gilmer--"Chirurgeon Apothecary of Williamsburgh"(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20, p. 423; Rec. Feb. 21, 1757)

1745 Will of Thomas Wharton--"Apothecary Williamsburgh"(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20, p.15; rec. Feb. 17, 1745)

1755 Will of Kenneth McKenzie—— "Williamsburgh (Surgeon)"(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20; rec. March 17, 1755; p. 353)

1758 Deed of George Pitt - Apothecary-surgeon [Williamsburg]
November 20, 1758, to Benjamin Baily, merchant- for lot [47] adjoining the Printing Office.

In England ca. 1747 the trade of the apothecary was described thus:

"THIS is a very genteel Business, and has been in great Vogue of late years, there being, as has been computed, upwards of a thousand in and about London. There are in this, and indeed in most other Trades, various Degrees as to Employ and Extent. Some do little else but make up Medicines according to the Prescriptions of the Dispensatory (compiled by the College of Physicians for their Direction) and those of particular Physicians, besides visiting 3 their Patients. Others not only prepare almost all kinds of Medicines, as well Galenical as Chemical, but likewise deal in Drugs; with all which they supply their Brethren in Trade, and so become a sort of Wholesale Dealers, as well as Apothecaries. Others again practise Surgery, Man-midwifery, and many times even officiate as Physicians, expecially in the Country, and often become Men of very large Practice, and eminent in their Way…

A Youth, intended for this Profession, should be a pretty good Scholar, and have a tolerable Knowledge in the Latin Tongue, at least, if not some in the Greek, that he may be the better able, in due time, to see the Opinions of the Ancients for himself, who mostly wrote in those Languages, as have also divers modern Authors in the first of them: Though, it must be owned, there are almost innumerable Helps in our Mother Tongue.

The Sums given with Lads, going Apprentices to this Business, are from 20 £ to 300 £ according to the Reputation and Station the Masters are in: And if a Boy is of an affable, acute Disposition, genteel and well-behaved, it will be so much the better.

They have no set Hours for Business; but I have observed they are not the earliest at it in the Morning, yet attend pretty late at Night: And an Apprentice at first must expect to do the lower Offices about the Shop, though they generally keep Serving-men, or Boys, to go on Errands, and do dirty Work.

A Journeyman has, according to his Capacity, from 10 £ to 40 £ a Year, and his Board.

For a Person, who may be inclined to set up 100 £ may do; but 200 £ I apprehend, will fit up a smart Shop; besides which they ought to have some-what handsome to support them till they get into a good Set of Patients.

Their Shops are liable to the Visitation of certain Persons, called Censors, who are four Fellows of the College, and have Power to inspect whether the Medicines they keep therein are good, and to destroy those which are not so.

In London they are one of the City Companies, and were first incorporated with the Grocers in the Year 1606, in the Reign of King James I … Their Hall is in Black-friars (where they have two fine Laboratories, out of which all the Surgeons Chests are supplied with Medicines for the Use of the Navy;)…

ARMS. Azure, Apollo in his Glory, holding in his Left-hand Bow, in his Right an Arrow, bestriding the Serpent Python.

MOTTO. Opiserque per Orbem dicor: I am called for Help throughout the World.

They have a Custom of going out two or three times a Year a Herbarising, or Simpling, which is in order to initiate the young Men into the Knowledge of Plants; and then they have also a Feast."

(A General Description of all TRADES in Alphabetical Order …, London 1747, pp. 1-4)

In 1758 Charles Goore writing from Liverpool to T. Bland Sr. in Virginia relative to the medical education of Bland's son, Theoderick Jr., said:

"My next neighbour, Dr. Robinson, is a very eminent physician, with whom I have consulted on your son's proceeding; whereon he gave me a detail of his own education, prescribed by an uncle of his, that was an eminent apothecary, and the first step taken was to be very well qualified with classical learning, then he was put to a noted apothecary for two years, to learn the method of compounding medicines, and learning of pharmacy, and then he spent about a year and a half at St. Thomas' Hospital, and at "different lectures of anatomy, &c., then he was sent to Oxford, where he diligently studied physic for about two years; this was the method he took:, and what he strongly 4 recommends, laying a great stress upon the knowledge he gain'd while with his master the apothecary, as a foundation to the rest; and we find a good apothecary frequently makes no bad physician …."

I. THE APOTHECARY IN VIRGINIA
(18th. Century)

In 1736 an Act of the Assembly of Virginia was passed regulating the fees and accounts of surgeons and apothecaries who had "served apprenticeships to those trades, who often prove very unskilful in the art of a phisician; and yet do demand excessive fees, and exact unreasonable prices for the medicines which they administer, and do too often, for the sake of making up long and expensive bills, load their patients with greater quantities thereof, than are necessary or useful, concealing all their compositions, as well to prevent the discovery of their practice, as of the true value of what they administer: which is become a grievance, dangerous and intolerable, as well to the poorer sort of people, as others, …" (Hening's Statutes, IV, p. 509/10) For comparison with the present-day charges for medicines and visits from physicians, a list of rates given in the Act of 1736 is copied below:

"Surgeons and apothecaries, who have served an apprenticeship to those trades, shall be allowed,

	£ s d
For every visit, and prescription, in town, or within five miles	00 5 00
For every mile, above five, and under ten,	00 1 00
For a visit, of ten miles,	00 10 00
And for every mile, above ten,	00 00 06
With an allowance for all ferriages in their journeys.
To Surgeons, For a simple fracture, and the cure thereof	02 00 00
For a compound fracture, and the cure thereof,	04 00 00"

…

Further regulations aimed at apothecaries follow:

"III. And to the end the true value of the medicines administred by any practicer in phisic, may be better known, and judged of, Be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That whenever any pills, bolus, portion, draught, electuary, decoction, or any medicines, in any form whatsoever, shall be administred to any sick person, the person administring the same shall, at the same time, deliver in his bill, expressing every particular thing made up therein; or if the medicine administred, be a simple, or compound, directed in the dispensatories, the true name 5 thereof be expressed in the same bill, together with the qualtities and prices, in both cases. And in failure thereof, such practicer, or any apothecary, making up the prescription of another, shall be nonsuited, in any action or suit thereafter commenced, which shall be grounded upon such bill or bills: Nor shall any book, or account, of any practicer in phisic, or any apothecary, be permitted to be given in evidence, before a court; unless the articles therein contained, be charged according to the directions of this act."(Ibid, p.510)

Some of the apothecaries in Virginia came from England. They had been trained before their arrival by a brother-apothecary, or by a physician-surgeon graduated from a university of Europe.¹ The vast number of apothecaries in the colonies learned their business through an apprenticeship of from three to six years, serving under an experienced apothecary or physician.²

Examples from the Virginia Gazette of apprenticeships to an apothecary are given below:

AN APPRENTICE to an Apothecary's shop. Inquire of the Printer or the subscriber, in Hobb's Hole.
JOHN BROCKENBROUGH." (Virginia Gazette, Rind, ed., Jan. 5, 1769)

June 3, 1773 [Williamsburg]

"Just IMPORTED from LONDON, in the VIRGINIA, Captain ESTEN, and to be SOLD at my Shop, in WILLIAMSBURG, A FRESH ASSORTMENT OF DRUGS AND MEDICINES, CHYMICAL AND GALENTICAL; Also fine Sallad Oil, Pickles, Spices, Currants, Figs, Prunes, Gold and Silver Leaf, Ivory Syringes, Tooth Brushes, and Lancets…

∴ I am in Want of an Apprentice for six or seven Years, who must have a tolerable Education, and be well disposed. A Premium will be expected."
"WILLIAM PASTEUR"

(Virginia Gazette, Purdie & Dixon, eds)

Dr. Thomas Wharton, "Apothecary Williamsburgh", in his will filed in York County, February 1745, bequeathed "To Doctor MacKenzie my silver hilted sword, mortars and all other physical utensils and all other drugs and medicines which I expect from England." (York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20, p.15) In February 1746, an inventory of "Medicine shipped by Joseph Tusfton & Co. to Dr. Thomas Wharton was placed on record in York County. In the inventory were 65 items adding up to "120.10.1 ¼ Sterling £38.11.0 in Currency."(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20. pp. 41-45) Also, in this inventory were listed medicines and other items found "in his shop" — 98 in all.

A Manuscript Apothecary Account Book—covering the dates January 1735/6 to November 1745/6 — though unsigned, obviously, belonged to Dr. Wharton, apothecary in Williamsburg.¹ Basis for this statement lies in an account found on page 293 noted thus: "1738 Mr Alexdr Ker Dr to T. Wharton." Other accounts by the physician against people in Williamsburg and the surrounding area are: "Lady Randolph"— 1739 and 1740 ; "The Governr" [Gooch] 1742; "Mastr Washington" 1739; "Mr Wetherburn" 1739-42. (See: Illustration #1 for full copy of one account.)

Another prominent apothecary in Williamsburg around 1751-74 was Doctor James Carter. A MS Invoice Apothecary Book now available is believed to have belonged to Dr. Carter although his name does not appear in the book.² Basis for this belief lies in the fact that one order for goods requested by Dr. Carter of John Norton & Sons, London merchants, dated "January l771" was received by Norton in "March 1771", and the goods shipped to Carter in "May 1771" by Norton was received by Carter in "August l77l." (See: John Norton & Sons, pp. 151-52, copy of Mss in Norton Collection, Colonial Williamsburg) The invoice for the goods received by Carter in August 1771, from Norton, was copied into the Invoice Apothecary Book on pp 70-71. Of the twenty accounts in the Invoice Account Book of Dr. Carter's, two seem of especial interest:

pp. 18-22-give: "1755 April 30th Medicines Bought Dr Machenzie's Estate ....... £63.18.9" [225 items listed]
pp. 30-37 give: "1757 May Medicines of Dr Gilmer's Estate ...... £544. 5. 6 ½" [435 items listed in this account]

Also of interest is the inventory of Dr. Kenneth McKenzie who lived in the Carter-Saunders house on the Palace Green in 1751, and had his apothecary shop on Duke of Gloucester Street. At his death in 1755 an inventory was made of items "In the Shop". A few of the many items have been used below:

August 18, 1755

"…
1 injecting syringe pipes ...... [£] 2.10.0
1 sett of amputating instruments, 1 sett of trepaning¹ instruments, 1 sett of instruments for lythotomy²...... 8.0.0(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20, p. 364)

"My good friend Dr. James Carter having behaved in a very kind manner to me in my sickness, I give and desire he will accept of my skeleton and injected child as an acknowledgment of the esteem and regard I have for him."

In 1762, George Pitt, another apothecary of Williamsburg, gave notice to the public that he had ready at his shop "at the Sign of the Rhinoceros, next Door to the Printing Office Williamsburg,

"ALSO CINNAMON, NUTMEGS, RAISINS OF the Sun, Prunces, Coloured Carraway and Coranider Comfits, Almond Comfits, Barley Sugar, Candied Eringo, Preserved Ginger and Nutmegs, Grits, Oatmeal, Sago, Sallad Oil, Capers, French and Spanish Olives, Black Lead Pots, Best Lancets, Bateman's Drops, Squire's and Stoughton's Elixirs, Turlington's Balsam, British Rock Oil, Hungary Water, Shell Almonds, Sticking Court Plaister, Tow, Vails, Gallipots, &c…"(Virginia Gazette, Feb. 12, 1762, Royle, ed.)

In 1766 Dr. William Pasteur advertised his medicines for sale in Williamsburg; at his shop. In addition Pasteur advertised other stock.³ This notice is typical of many inserted in the Virginia Gazette of this period: 9

"Just Imported from LONDON, in the ARGYLE, Capt. COCKE, and to be sold on reasonable terms by the Subscriber, at his shop in WILLIAMSBURG, A COMPLETE assortment of MEDICINES. Also SPICES of all sorts, Capers, Olives, and Walnuts, Saltpetre, Currants, Figs, Prunes, White and Brown Candies, Sallad Oil, Best Durham Flower of Mustard, Elixir Bardana, Essence of Water Dock, Turlington's Balsam, British oil, Godfrey's and Freeman's Cordials, Stoughton's, Bateman's and Jesuits Drops, Pectoral Balm of Honey, Smelling Bottles, Lancets, Black Lead Pots, Crucibles, &c.
William Pasteur."

A contemporary of Dr. William Pasteur in Williamsburg was Dr. John Minson Galt, who announced on February 2, 1769 in the Gazette that "The subscriber, who is just arrived from LONDON, purposes settling in WILLIAMSBURG, where he intends practising as a SURGEON, APOTHECARY, and MAN-MIDWIFE; and hopes, from the application he has made in these branches, to be able to give satisfaction. Those who will please to favour him with their employ may depend upon the strictest attendance." (Purdie & Dixon, eds. Feb. 2, 1769)

On April 15, 1775 Pasteur and Galt established a partnership and so advertised in the Gazette: "… that they intend practising Physic and Surgery to their fullest Extent; and that they intend also, as soon as the Situation of the Times will admit, to keep full and complete Assortments of Drugs and Medicines, which they will endeavour to procure of the very best in Quality, and will take Care to have them fresh by making several Importations in the Year …" (Dixon & Hunter, eds., April 15, 1775) This shop of Pasteur and Galt was east of the Raleigh Tavern. Prior to the partnership, Dr. Galt advertised his shop "near the Capitol, in Williamsburg".(Purdie & Dixon, eds., April 23, 1772)

In June 1779 Dr. William Carter announced in the Virginia Gazette that he had dissolved partnership with his brother and had

"purchased my brother's half of the shop, drugs, medicines &c … I have to dispose of several nests of drawers, boxes, bottles, syrup and ointment pots, all neatly painted and lettered, and all other utensils, sufficient to fit up a compleat druggist's or apothecary's shop … also most kinds of surgeon's instruments, together with the following druggs, medicines, &c. viz. [long list of drugs and medicines} … chalk stones; bolus tiles,² plaster knives, spatulas and ounce measures, &c …

Much of the medicines used by apothecaries in Virginia was imported from London or other foreign ports. The Virginia Gazette lists many advertisements showing that drugs and medicines were imported. Several examples from the many are:

[Williamsburg, Virginia June 20, 1745.]

"Just Imported…
from London — A Large Quantity of Medicines and Druggs…
George Gilmer"¹

(Virginia Gazette, William Parks, ed.)

[July 18, 1751]

"Just IMPORTED in the Dutchess of Queensbury, Capt. Dick, from London, and to be Sold, at the lowest Rates, by the Subscriber in Williamsburg, A VERY large Assortment of Drugs and Medicines…
James Carter."

(Virginia Gazette, William Hunter, ed.)

[July 18, 1751]

"Just IMPORTED in the Dutchess of Queensbury, Capt. Dick, from LONDON, A CHOICE Assortment of Drugs and Medicines, &c… Phials, Gallipots, Smelling-Bottles in Cases… Crucibles, Syringes,…; all to be Sold by the Subscriber, at his Shop, in Williamsburg.
Peter Hay."

(Virginia Gazette, Hunter, ed.)

[February 12, 1762]

"JUST IMPORTED,
A fresh Assortment of Drugs and Medicines, By the SUBSCRIBER, at the SIGN of the RHINOCEROS, next Door to the PRINTING-OFFICE, Williamsburg…
GEORGE PITT"

(Virginia Gazette, Purdie & Dixon [Royle], eds.)

John Aubrey (1626-1697), an English naturalist, recognized the value of medicinal plants. "God Almighty," says Aubrey, "hath furnished us with plants to cure us, that grow, perhaps, within five or ten miles of our abodes, and we know it not… I am no botanist myself, and I think we have very few in our countrey that are; the more is the pity." (Timbs, John, DOCTORS AND PATIENTS, Vol., I, p. 158, London — 1873) Aubrey saw the importance of "simplers," persons who knew the herbs and plants from which medicines could be distilled. Aubrey names several apothecaries, in Wiltshire, "whose profession headeth them to an acquaintance of herbes."

A contemporary of Aubrey was Sir Hans Sloane, (1660-1727), Secretary of the Royal Society, a distinguished botanist and physician of England. Sir Hans through a period of years had collected "species of plants in botany, besides 200 volumes of dried samples of plants". A generous benefactor, Sloane "presented the Apothecaries Company with the freehold of their Botanic Gardens at Chelsea on condition that they should present annually to the Royal Society fifty new 12 plants, until the number amounted to 2000"¹(Ibid, I, p. 246)

In Virginia as in England "potions" or "elixirs " were compounded by apothecaries who distilled the ingredients from native herbs and plants. Simpling may have been indulged in by the apothecary, or by some apprentice. As early as 1706, William Byrd II carried on a correspondence with Sir Hans Sloane. A few of Byrd's findings and ideas about physick and medicines are included:

"Virginia the 20th of April 1706.

[1706] Sir
…
… Here be some men indeed that are call'd Doctors: but they are generally discarded Surgeons of Ships, that know nothing above very common Remedys. They are not acquainted enough with Plants or the other parts of Natural History, to do any Service to the World,…"

(William and Mary Quarterly Second Series I, p. 186, copy from the British Transcripts, Library of Congress, Sloane 40-4.0 f. 151)

[1706] "…
I have herewith sent a small box of the Root² with which the Indians us'd to cure the bite of a Rattle-Snake… Certainly a Plant that has virtue enough to cure so venemous a bite, as that of the Rattle-Snake, must be of infinite use in other disasters. I beg the Society woud please make some experimts with it … "

P/S
Since I writ the other side I have discover'd the true Hypoquecuana, of which I send you a Sample … I have also sent you the Root which we find a kind of a Specifique both for the dry gripes, and the Wind-Cholique … I have put up also Some of our assarabbacca which we have of 2 sorts, but this is the best… "

(Ibid., p. 188)

"Virginia the 10 sept 1708

Sr.
… By this fleet I send you a box with some more roots and seeds, that the Society may try if there be any virtue in them. Amongst the rest, there is a Paper of a Root which I think very like Jalop, we call the plant here Poke, it bears a purple berry which woud dye an admirable coulour if we understood the right way of fixing it…. There is a Paper of a dangerous seed of a Plant which we call here Jamestown Weed, both the seed and the root are rank poison and so are the leaves when they are grown to their full bigness, but these are only poison if taken inwardly for both the Root and the leaves make a Poultis that cures a burn immediately. In another paper is a seed of the Jerusalem oak as we call it, … You will find a Paper of Stickweed root (very common here) the green leaves of which never fail to stop bleeding either at the nose or else where, provided they be frequently apply'd to the part affected … " (Ibid., pp. 189-190)

The gathering of herbs and plants from which medicines could be extracted was encouraged by Hugh Jones, who published his book on Virginia in 1724:

[1724]

"As for physical Plants and Trees, abundance of Poor might be employed in simpling and collecting Drugs for the Apothecaries Service, which abound there; such as Sassafras, Saxafras, Snake-root, with numberless more, whose Virtue is unknown."

(Present State of Virginia, by Hugh Jones, London 1724; reprint for Joseph Sabin, New York, 1865, p. 131)

On November 12, 1745, Dr. John Mitchell of Urbanna advertised in the Gazette, that he was offering "his houses and lots, and a large Garden, containing many useful and curious Plants and Herbs, … proper utensils of an Apothecary's Shop, and Medicines; …"(Virginia Gazette, Parks, ed., Nov. 14-21, 1745)

Dr. Wyndham B. Blanton in his Medicine in Virginia in the Eighteenth Century (1931) discusses the credible work done by a number of American botanists of whom eleven were physicians.

pp. 136-152

"… There were Alexander Garden of South Carolina, after whom the genus gardenia was named, and Caspar Wistar from whom wistaria took its name. There were John Bartram and Benjamin Barton of Pennsylvania, and Cadwallader Colden of New York, 14 who knew and corresponded with their fellow botanists in Virginia. In Virginia the outstanding men in botany were John Mitchell, John Clayton, Mark Catesby and James Greenway. All were primarily interested in the science and all were well known on two continents for their botanical contributions…

…
Catesby [Mark] remained in Virginia for seven years, botanizing and sharing his finds with his English friends, expecially with a Mr. Dale of Essex, "a skilful Apothecary and Botanist," to whom he sent numbers of seeds, dried specimens and even some growning plants …

…
Catesby remarked to John Bartram in 1740, "I regard most, those plants that are specious in their appearance, or use in physic …" and our interest is naturally attracted by the medicinal plants he described. "The root [of the May Apple] is said to be an excellent Emetic", he wrote, "and is used as such in Carolina, which has given it there the name of Ipecacuana, the stringy Roots of which it resembles. It flowers in March; the fruit is ripe in May, which has occasioned it in Virginia to be called May-Apple". [Catesby described the Tooth-ache Tree… used by inhabitants of the sea coast of Virginia and Carolina for tooth-ache; the Virginia Snakeroot; the Gum Elimy Tree; Sassafras for intermitting fevers; Yapon to restore the appetite; Indian Pink recommended as "good against worms; Purple Blind Weed, China Root and Arbor lauri folio; Ginseng; Hahamelis (witch-hazel) -]

II. THE APOTHECARY'S SHOP

In Dr. Blanton's Medicine in Virginia in the Eighteenth Century, there is a very interesting description of an eighteenth century apothecary shop:

"The Eighteenth Century apothecary shop was an interesting spot, whether we view it as a gathering place of the local notables, as the museum of ancient modes and practices of pharmacy or as a temple of mystery. The shops must have been much alike whether conducted by a physician with a hired pharmacist or by an independent chemist. Over the door hung a conventional sign —— a golden ball, an ointment pot or a hugh mortar and pestle, an impressive dragon or a deer or a dove. In the window the glowing carboys lured the passersby with their bright colors and mystic air. "His shop the gazing vulgar's eyes employs, With foreign trinkets and domestic toys." Within, the atmosphere was pungent with medicinal odors —— spices, aromatics, sharp fumes of volatile drugs, or the by-products of the distillation that was constantly going on. Around the walls were rows of earthen jars, demi-johns and decorative galli-pots. There was the massive prescription counter with its immense brass scales and balanced pans, weighing in pounds and ounces the heavier objects offered for sale. From behind this counter came the pounding of the great stone mortar and if one chose to look, there were the press, the crude distillation 15 apparatus, the clumsy strainer, the shiny pill tile and bolus knife, the spatula and the apothecary's scales with their odd little weights stamped with scruples, drams and ounces. In a corner hung the string of antique bills, laden with dust. The shelves were filled with bottles, hand blown and of various colors —— shelf bottles, stock bottles and vials, containing the well known "chemical and galenical" preparations. Some held crude drugs, dried rhizones, roots and leaves. In others were powders, pills, ointments, infusions, tinctures, elixirs —— all the favored preparations of a century of heavy dosing. One could not escape the great display of patent medicines…. "

(Page 40)

It is known that apothecaries frequently announced the location of their shops by hanging a golden mortar and pestle before their shop doors. An example of this custom is found in the Pennsylvania Gazette of date March 3, 1763: "Smith & Harris at the Medical Store kept by Messieurs McLane and Stuart at the sign of the Golden Pestle in Second-street advertise … compleat assortment of surgeons instruments … " Another custom was to put the name of the apothecary on the tops of bottles. This custom did not seem to be as popular as that of hanging out the Mortar and Pestle. However, on May 14, 1752, Christopher Marshall at the Golden Ball, in Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, advertised "… That the bottle they buy have not only my Christian name on the top of the bottle, but that my name at large be in each printed bill of directions." Another custom seems to have been to fill bottles with colored water and put them into the front windows to announce the nature of the business.

Little material has been located as to the size and equipment of an eighteenth century Virginia apothecary shop¹. From the scant records, items have 16 been picked and listed below:

1732 [Inventory of Robert Carter of Lancaster County, Virginia] "… 3 physick Sifters"Virginia Historical Magazine VI, p.261)

1728 [Inventory of Nathaniel Harrison Prince George County, Virginia] "… 1 Physick Press with Sundry Druggs Apothecary Ware &c … "(Ibid., XXXI, p. 364)

[1736 Inventory of Dr. Robert Bowis, York County, Virginia,] "…

1 box of Capitol instruments	[£] 0.15.0
1 marble and 2 bell mettle mortars	1.17.6
1 set of drawers and two fine sifters	1. 2.6
i set of pocket instruments2	1. 6.6
Physick bottles, etc	1.19.6"

…(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 18, p. 356 )

1746 [Inventory of Dr. Thomas Wharton Williamsburg] "…

In his Shop
1 large Bell metal mortar and iron pestle	168 lbs
……	8. 8.0
1 large marble mortar and pestle	1. 6.0
2 small do	0.10.0
9 pill potts	0. 2.0
1 copper still and worm tub and furnace	6.10.0
Quart, Pint, half pint and gill potts	2. 3.0
Drawers, Shelves and Counter	7.0 .0
½ gro: vials	0. 3.0
Porphrey stone and muller	0. 5. 9"

(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20, pp. 41-45)

1757 Invoice of apothecary's goods listed in the estate of Dr. George Gilmer, and found in the Ms Invoice Apothecary's Book (Research Department) — believed to belonged to Dr. James Carter of Williamsburg:
Of especial interest are these items:
"Crucibles, clyster pipes, pewter syringes, plaister, nipples glasses, bottle corks, rose mill levigating stone, retorts end receivers, galley potts, vials, oil cloth, pill boxes, shop day book ruled, 2 reams brown paper, whited paper, turpentine, vial corks, leather corks, cannisters, glass funnels, bundle Dutch twine, cypress, sieve, lawn sieve, strong Dutch oven, &c."

Among the many items ordered by Dr. James Carter in the period 1752-1773 from London merchants are these below-selected as typical goods needed by apothecaries and sold in his shop in Williamsburg:

p. 3 [Invoice of Drugs from Joseph Etherington May 1752]
…

18 Groce Vial Corks	[£] 0:6:0
2 doz Smelling bottls in cases…10s	1:0:0
Do without cases with Silver Necks & Stoppers	3:4:0
1 Doz Nipple Glasses	0:4:0
1 Doz Best Bleeding Lancetts	1:0:0

p. 7 [Invoice of Goods by the Pelham Cap Youfille, from Mr Joseph Etherington - August 1753-

Dr Langrish Modern Theory &c	0:5:0
2 vols Huxam de Aere & Morb: Emiderm	0:8:0
Robinson on Foods & Discharges	0:3:6
Dr Mead on Poisons	0:5:0
Monita Medica	0:4:6

p.16] Invoice of Medicines Bought of Jos: Ethrington 1755 March 15.

Boerhaves Medical correspondence

0:4:6

p.23] Invoice of Drugs &c of Messr Williams & Co
July 1 1755
…

2 doz Pewter Syringes with Pipes

0:14:0

p.29] Invoice of Drugs from Messrs Williang & Co 1756 Octor 28th
…

[?]Crabs Eyes…2/6

1:10:0

p.67] Drugs from Williams & Slater 1768

1 doz Iron Spatulas	-:18:-
…
2 doz Tooth Brushes…5	-:10:-
…
2 Small Marble Mortars & Pestles	1:0:0
24 papers Pill Boxes…6	-:12:-1
…
1 doz quart Crucibles	-:15:-]

In the May 16th 1755 edition of the Virginia Gazette (Hunter, editor), "Linseed Oil in Carboys, and Sweet-Oil in Flasks, with sundry other Medicines" are advertised as "Just imported, from LONDON, in the Commerce, Capt. WILLIAM MOUAT, and to be sold, in Richmond".

In other sections of the state, apothecaries advertised thus:

1776 September 27, [Notice of a Sale in Petersburg]

"For SALE, in PETERSBURG, on low Terms,
A VERY neat Set of APOTHECARY'S DRAWERS, in four Nests, neatly printed and lettered, with Brass Rings; 30 double Flint TINCTURE BOTTLES, with ground Stoppers, neatly lettered; 40 OINTMENT and SIRUP POTS, blue and white, with Lacker Covers, painted and lettered; Ditto PILL-POTS.

I will find any Gentleman who the above may suit an Assortment of MEDICINES for Practice, with Iron, Marble, and Glass Mortars, Funnels, Searches, Gallipots, and Vials; also a quantity of Crucibles, six in a Nest…JOHN THOMSON"

(Virginia Gazette, Dixon & Hunter, eds.,)

1777 Virginia Gazette (Purdie, ed., October 24, 1777)"I HAVE for sale, on low terms, a quantity of valuable and well assorted MEDICINES, likewise a number of shop drawers neatly painted and lettered, glass retorts and receivers, &c.
J.K. READ."

1783 Account of Doctr John M. Galt Dr to Humphrey Harwood [carpenter] June 13
"To seting up a Still & Repairg another 5/" (Ledger B, p 24, Humphrey Harwood, copy in Research Department)

1787 Account of Doctrs Galt & Barraud Drs to Humphrey Harwood
Octor 8
"To building a Furnace & Setting a Grate 15/" (Ibid., p . 119)

1793 June 5, [Advertisement of an apothecary in Fredericksburg]:
"GEORGE FRENCH
Has Just Imported from London A Large & General Assortment of MEDICINES
… Chests made up for private families, with directions how to use the different Medicines." (The Virginia Herald & Fredericksburg Advertiser, Vol VII, No. 314; microfilm, Research Department)

1800 Inventory of Dr. Robert Nicolson [Williamsburg]
"July 24, 1800.
"…

Medicine and shop furniture

[£] 52. 7. 6"

(York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 23, p. 562)

Medical Books of the period, possibly on the shelves of a Virginia Apothecary Shop:

) "12 vols Huxam de Aere & Morb: Epiderm:
Robinson on Food & Discharges
Dr Mead on Poisons —
Monita Medica
De Variolis & Morbillis (Ms Invoice Apothecary Book, p. 7)

Boerhaves Medical correspondence (Ibid., p. 16)

Broomfield's Treatise on Inoculation
Dimsdales Do Ibid., p. 68)

Every Man his Own Doctor; or, The Poor Plant's Physician. (Advertised in The Maryland Gazette, April 26, 1745)

Power of Drugs
The Family Physician
Flowers and Plants
London Dispensatory (Daniel Parke Custis Library, Virginia Historical Magazine, XVII, p. 404, 409, 410)

Epitome of Physick and Surgery
Chirurgery and Anatomical Works (William and Mary Quarterly, VIII, p. 78 )

Experiments upon the Human Bile and Reflections on the Biliary Secretions (1772) by Dr. James McClurg(Dictionary of American Biography)

Essay on the Pleurisy by Dr. John Tennent (Virginia Gazette, Feb. 3, 1738 )

Physick Dictionary Virginia Historical Magazine, X, p. 401)

Account of the Fox-Glove, and some of its Medical Uses, with Practical Remarks about other Diseases, by William Withering, M.D., Physician to the General Hospital at Birmingham, two volumes, octave, in boards, with beautiful coloured Prints of the Plant" (The London Evening-Post, May 6, to 8, 1786 (Archives of Colonial Williamsburg)

In the inventory of the estate of Dr. Kenneth McKenzie of Williamsburg (August 18, 1755 - York County Records, Wills, Inventories, Book 20, p. 364) is a list of medical books. These books were in the apothecary shop of Dr. 20 McKenzie in Williamsburg, and are so listed: "In the Shop":

"Coopers Anatomy £4.
Bailey's Dictionary 15/
Hoadley on Respiration 3/
Ranby on gunshot wounds 2/
Medicina Statica 2/6
London Dispensatory 4/
Keils Anatomy 1/3
Robinson on Diseases 2/6
Hippocrates Aphorisms 2/
Prasaguim Medicum 1/
Anatomical figures No. 11 with explanations
A survey of the Microcosm 5/9
Douglas's Midwifry 1/6
Boerhaves Chymistry 26/
Winslows Anatomy 15/
Hiesters Surgery 15/
Douglas Lythotomy 2/
Hiesters Compendrium 5/
Astruc on women Vol . 5 18/
James Shaws Dispensatorys each 2/
Friends History on Physic 5/9
Garengeols Surgery 3/
Heads Precepts 5/
Chapmans Midwifry 3/9
Harvey D Motri Cordis 2/6
Chyne on Health 2/, do. on Gout 1/6
Cheseldon on the Stone 2/, do. on anatomy 5/
Wilson Chymistry 2/6
Praxis Medica 2/
Monroe's Anatomy 1/6
Mead on Poisons 5/
State of Midwifery 1/6
Ledrams Operations 2 vols 10/
Saviards Observations 5/
Sharps Critical Enquiry 3/
St. Ives on the Eyes
Sharps Surgery 5/
Medical Essays 10/10
Thompson on Desecting 3/
Sturlock on Dentition 4/
Petit on the Bones 4/
Mauriceas Hidwifery 5/
Daventrys do. 4/
Vansweeten 8 vols 40/
Hillery on the small pox and Robinson on decays
Sydenhams works 4/
Bagtivi and Pitcarn 9/
Bellini 4/
Lomius on Fevers 5/
Mead on Smallpox 2/6
Hodern Practice of Physic 2 vols. 8/
21 Wainwright on nonnaturals 4/
Friend on Fevers 5/
Friends Emanalogia 3/
Shaws Practice of Physics 2 vols. 7/6
Arbuthnot on Air 3/
…"

In the library of the Eastern State Hospital, Williamsburg, are medical books once in the personal library of Dr. John M. Galt. Some of these books have signatures of doctors of earlier days: Dr. George Riddle, Apothecary, Dr. William Pasteur, City Surgeon, and Apothecary, Dr. George Gilmer, Apothecary, and Dr. John M. Galt. A few of the books are listed below:

"Treatises on Chirurgery¹ (1676)
Medical Essays and Observations Relation to the Practice of Physic and Surgery, Vol. II (London 1745)²
Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris Vol. I, (London 1750)³
Mellisicium of Chirurgiae, Or, the Marrow of Chirurgery… with twelve brass plates [of surgical instruments] (London, 1676)⁴
Dr. Boerhave's Academical Lectures on the Theory of Physic, Vol. I, (London 1742) - Also, Vol. II.⁵
Pharmacopoeia Bateana… by Thomas Fuller (London, 1719)
The Ancient Physician's Legacy to his Country by Thomas Dovar (London 1733)⁶
A Catalogue of Drugs (London 1789)"

These books are of especial interest and value because they indicate that Dr. Wi9lliam Pasteur who had been an apothecary-apprentice under Dr. George Gilmer, came into possession of some of Dr. Gilmer's medical library; and that Dr. John M. Galt, partner of Dr. Pasteur at one time, also was owner of books of Gilmer and Pasteur.

III. OLDEST APOTHECARY BUILDING IN THE UNITED STATES (now standing in Fredericksburg, Virginia)

"The oldest apothecary building [now standing] in America (1761-1777) shop end [was] built in 1746, kept by General Hugh Mercer from 1761 to 1767. General Mercer was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, 1725 — Graduated from school of medicine of Marischall College, 1740. Dr. Mercer came to America in the Fall of 1746, landing at Philadelphia, from there to the western border of Pennsylvania now known as Mercersburg. For some years he practiced his profession as a physician in that sparsely settled section. Hugh Mercer fought in French and Indian War as Captain in Braddock's army being promoted to rank of Major in 1757. During this time Hugh Mercer met George Washington, a friendship sprang up between them that lasted as long as Mercer lived, as result of this friendship Virginia became the home of Hugh Mercer. During the Revolutionary War Mercer was on January 10, 1776, made Colonel of the Third Regiment. On June 5, 1776, he was promoted to Brigadier General in the Continental Army. January 3, 1777, in the Battle of Princeton, General Mercer was mortally wounded — dying of these wounds January 12, 1777. He had willingly sacrificed his life for the liberty of his adopted land.

Shelving across back of shop was revealed behind a false wall in 1928. Some of the bottles are original, others are of the period. The Large Jars on the counter with hood tops were for herbs and roots, other bottles were for liquids. They were blown in Pear shape in order that the liquids be more easily poured. Two large blown glass jars on counter are decorated on inside. One used for powdered bark has the Coat of Arms of the "order of the Garter." The one for the rhubarb has the official seal of the "City of Glasgow", both were made in Scotland.

Hanging on left wall of the shop are two receipts written by a scribe and signed by Dr. Mercer. The prescription was written by Dr. Mercer in 1775 for 23 Colonel Madison, father of President James Madison. The Cork Press and Pill Board on counter were of the period. The apparatus on the hearth is a rose water still. The bottles in the window were filled with colored water and were the sign of the apothecary.

IN SUMMARY:

In the seventeenth century a chirurgeon was one whose profession it was to cure bodily diseases by manual operations; an apothecary was one who professed the practice of pharmacy, or that part of physic consisting in the preparation and composition of medicines. In the time of James I. the company of apothecaries were incorporated by charter and separated from the grocers' company —, thereby making it possible that medicine could be better prepared and more intelligently dispensed. After 1700, apothecaries gradually took a place as general practitioners. In this move, the apothecary's profession broadened so that the practice of medicine and the duties of the chirurgeon were embraced by the pharmacist (often dubbed, "drugster" or "apothecary"). In Virginia by the mid-seventeenth century, laws had been passed for regulating the excessive rates and prices exacted by "practioners of phisick and chirurgery." Further regulating by law of surgeons, or apothecaries occurred in 1736 when it became unlawful for surgeons or apothecaries to make excessive charges as a physician, or to exact unreasonable prices for the medicines administered, or to conceal the compositions of such medicines. Many of the apothecaries and their apprentices were English trained by brother-apothecaries, or by university trained physician-surgeons. Among the prominent apothecaries of Williamsburg were: "Dr. Thomas Wharton—Williamsburgh apothecary" (died 1745) whose Manuscript Apothecary Account Book (1735-1745/6) is extant; Dr. James Carter whose Manuscript Invoice Apothecary Book covers the period 1752-1773; "Dr. George Gilmer, Chirurgeon-Apothecary of Williamsburgh" (died 1757) ; Dr. Kenneth McKenzie (died 1755); Dr. William Pasteur, Dr. William Carter, Dr. John Min son Galt, and others. Very early in the eighteenth century, decided interest was shown by Virginia doctors of physick and apothecaries — as well as by botanists —, in collecting native herbs and plants, compounding medicines therefrom, 25 their dried products to botanists and physicians in England. William Byrd II, John Clayton, Mark Catesby and James Greenway represented the Virginia botanists who made such contributions to medicine; Hugh Jones (in 1724) made note thus: "… As for physical Plants and Trees abundance of Poor might be employed in simpling and collecting Drugs for the Apothecaries Service, which abound there [in Virginia]". By mid-eighteenth century, the apothecary had enlarged his income from drugs by the sale of sundry articles such as spices, paint, gold-leaf, anchovies &c. The sign of the apothecary was a golden mortar and pestle which hung before the shop door. Also, it was customary to display large bottles filled with colored water in the front windows to announce the nature of the business. And, in some cases, the bottles had the Christian name of the apothecary on the tops of the bottles and a printed bill of directions was attached thereto. Little is available as to the size of the shop, and the equipment. However, from reading the apothecary advertisements in the newspapers of the period, one gathers that the apothecary had a shop, a storage room, and a laboratory. From these advertisements one can get a rather clear picture of the type of equipment usual to these shops. Given below is a list compiled by the writer from Apothecary Source Books, Virginia Gazette, Pennsylvania Gazette, and Maryland Gazette of the eighteenth century period:

"SMITH & HARRIS at the Medical Store kept by Messieurs McLand and Stuart at the sign of the Golden Pestle in Second-street advertise … Also compleat Assortment of surgeons Instruments made by Cargill and Wigglesworth, Instrument-makers of his Majesty's Hospitals, viz ., compleat Setts of amputating Instruments, in Fish-skin Cases [then follows] trepanning Cases, pocket instruments, lancets, needles, 27 scalpels, cupping instruments with pump, scarificator containing 16 lancets, valve glasses, trechars and canulars, catheters, teeth instruments with ivory and ebony handles with three claws to each, gum lancets, crooked scissors, Smellies' Midwifery Instruments, tournaquits, canula, pins for the hair lip, pessaries with bandages, eye probes, spatulas…"

The above report on "The Apothecary Shop" is slanted to indicate more especially the equipment used in an apothecary shop of the eighteenth century, and the qualifications of the apothecary. An effort has been made also to show that the apothecary not only was the dispenser of drugs and medicines at his shop and practiced upon the patient in many cases, but in addition to selling drugs and medicines, offered condiments of all kinds, candies, preserved fruits, tobacco, snuff, painter's colors, varnish, gold leaf, soap &c.

See Appendix for illustrations of Apothecary Shops, Chirurgical and Surgical instruments, and invoices of apothecary accounts.

Marriage A-la-Mode

The Druggist and Apothecary

The Apothecary in his Shop

An Apothecaries Shop
in the XVIII Century

An Apothecaries Shop in Amsterdam

ILLUSTRATION #3

• DIDEROT: DICTION. DES SCIENCE PLANCHES TOM XII
  Recueil de Plancbes Sur Les Sciences …
  CHIRURGIE: Pl. I-VIII…… [instruments, methods, &c.]
• Illustration of Seventeenth Century Clyster Syringe
  (Blanton, Wyndham B., MEDICINE IN VIRGINIA IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY) p. 134
• Illustration of Seventeenth Century Surgical Instruments
  Ibid., p. 130, 146)
• Illustration of Seventeenth Cenury Medicine Chest
  Ibid., p. 126)
• Illustration of Eighteenth Century Obstetrical Forcepts
  (MEDICINE IN VIRGINIA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, p. 42)
• Illustration of Seventeenth Century Surgical Instruments… 12 brass cuts … (MELLISICIUM CHIRURGIAE Or, the MARROW OF CHIRURGERY (London 1676) by James Cooke, [book in library of the Eastern State Hospital] )